UNIT 1 NNTT

Historia de la evolución de la didáctica de las lenguas extranjeras: de los métodos de gramática-traducción a los enfoques actuales basados en  las nuevas tecnologías de la información y comunicación (ICTs)

 

Question development

There are different routes to approach the topic question. We may use a chronological, linguistic or grammar-based perspective or just a simple outline of the most relevant methods concerning the language teaching. No matter which one we are selecting we should be facing on one hand general didactic concepts such as the difference between Approach & Method & Technique and on the other hand popular teaching methods should come to light such as; traditional method; direct method; communicative and task-based approach. We are going to introduce a brief chronological view of the History of English Language teaching and we will be highlighting new approaches to the process of teaching English as a Foreign Language paying a special attention to Communicative approaches.

We will mainly base our answer on Richard & Rodgers 1986 and  Howatt 1984.

From ancient civilisations up to 19^th century the traditional/ classical method was the method of reference. To teach a grammar was considered to teach a language. The grammar of reference was Latin and the reading and translation of classical writers to the different vernacular languages was the way of learning a 2^nd language. On the other hand we need to bear in mind that there was not a serious social demand for learning a 2^nd language, neither there was any serious scientific research on the concept of what was a language? And how did we acquire it?

Briefly we can describe:

Early stages in language teaching:

Ancient civilisations

Greek and Latin were the most popular Western languages. Normal methodology followed the classical order. Texts to be read and discussed.

Middle Ages

Latin was the most important language. Once Latin derived to the different vernacular languages; Spanish; French; Italian; etc… Latin was usually used as a second language. It was taught in the monastic schools through rote learning of grammar rules – memoristic learning- and translation

The Latin grammar was the grammar of reference. Teaching a grammar was understood to be teaching a language. Grammar was prescriptive and not descriptive.

16^th & 17^th Century

Latin was almost completely displaced by vernacular languages.

Latin was studied as mental gymnastic and as the basis for all forms of higher education.

18^th Century

In this period, other languages started entering the curriculum of European schools. These languages were taught according to traditional methodology:

Teaching procedures were based on Latin learning tradition.

Textbooks were mainly lists of abstract grammar rules; vocabulary and sentences for translation.

Oral practice was limited to reading aloud written texts, which was within the normal confines of the classical methodology

From 19^th Century up to nowadays we need to remember Dickens` words on a Tale of two cities; “it was the epoch of Light; it was the epoch of Darkness; it was the epoch of Belief; it was the epoch of Disbelief; it was the epoch of Change”. Undoubtedly it was the epoch of change. Changes, which affect all the different aspects of our contemporary society; and languages, its importance and the way they were taught, couldn’t stay aside.

Early 19^th Century

In the early 19^th century the Grammar-Translation Method was the principal approach to language learning. It was known in the U.S.A as the Prussian Method. The main points of the method were:

The grammatical terminology of Latin was applied to early grammars of European languages

The goal was to enable learners to read classical literature

The main skills in use were reading and writing

The syllabus consisted of a sequence of grammar points and a vocabulary selection based on reading texts. The sentence was taken to be the basic unit of language teaching.

The methodology in use was based on the following points:

Grammar rules are taught deductively

Vocabulary items are presented with their translation equivalents

Translation exercises of written texts are prescribed

Accuracy is emphasized

Mother tongue is the medium of instruction

Formal written examinations must be passed

Late 19^th Century

In the late 19^th century a philological model substitutes the classical grammar one. The scientific contrasting of different languages following a scientific method derives into a genetical or typological classification of languages. This first scientific research of what we do understand by a language and how they have developed represents a shift from grammar-translation methods to direct methods. This came as a result of interest in and observation of the way scientific philological researchers acquire the language they were researching without grammar or dictionaries. We should mention; L.Sauveur (1826-1907) & M.Berlitz. Both of them following the idea of the Direct Method – a method of teaching a foreign language, through conversation, discussion and reading in the language itself without use of the pupil’s language, without translation, and without the study of proper grammar. The first words are taught by pointing to objects or pictures or by performing actions. The main criticisms of this method were that it was closer to the idea of an approach –theory- than to a single method – design +planning-; it was based on naturalistic principles, but it lacked a rigorous basis in Applied Linguistics theory; it was successful only in private schools where there were three determining factors: highly motivated students; native speakers; a short ratio.

On the other hand the observation of the way a child learns its mother tongue derived into the Reform Movement (Natural methods)

F.Sweet-the Practical Study of Language 1899-;W. Viëtor –Language Teaching must be Afresh-1882-. This tendency to consider Phonetics as an essential element in language learning lead to the founding of the International Phonetic Association (1886). Reformers agreed on a number of principles to provide the theoretical foundations in L2 teaching:

Spoken language is primary

Oral forms should be introduced to learners before written forms

Language should be used in a context

Grammar should be taught inductively

Translations should be avoided.

20^th century: Trends in TEFL

Once most of the principles, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, were systematised into coherent teaching procedures and the study of the LANGUAGE –LINGUISTICS-became a science (Saussure 1916); the Direct method & Natural method developed into Structuralist methods

The Audiolingual Method (USA) . based on a drilling pattern principle

The Audio-Lingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central elements of instruction. Proponents of the ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition necessitated a corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.

In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented through short dialogs. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of conversations and focused on accurately mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.

Critics of the ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did not help students achieve communicative competence in the target language. They looked for new ways to present and organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus, and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and foreign languages

The situational language teaching method (U.K) based on contextualized drilling work.

The 20th century has seen an immense amount of activity in language teaching methodology. Grammar Translation, the Direct Method, Audio-Lingualism—all preceded what some have called the Age of Methods, comprising most of the last decades of this century (Richards and Rodgers 1986). During this period a number of new methods clamored for attention and vied for adherents:

Human relations are emphasized; individualization and Humanistic techniques are taken into account. Approaches such as the Humanistic approach –with a more psychological & sociological base derives in methods as; TPR, Silent Way, Suggestopedia, etc .

Suggestopedia. Georgi Lozanov is a Bulgarian educator and psychologist who emerged in the 1970s as a leading figure in the field of accelerated learning with his theory of suggestopedia where various techniques, including breathing and music, were found to enhance learning. It focuses on different techniques such as yoga sincronized music with a reading and almost hypnosis to create the most adequate atmosphere so students can learn

Silent Way. Caleb Gattegno (1972) “Teaching Foreign languages in Schools”(1976) “The common sense of  teaching foreign languages”. A current misunderstanding arises with its name, how to learn a language through a silent system?.  Silent is reffered to teachers and not to students. Students should be motivated to speak as much as possible. This method has been reffered as Method of Colours, because of the use of different colours or cromatic rules to define different phonemes, endings, words or target language sentences.

This method focuses on how students acquire their mother-tongue language and therefore follows similar stages for the second language. A common classroon strategy is to start with different colours associated to some phonemes. Add to this previous colours are added some cromatic rulers to create words or target language sentences. It is a very student-centred method but although useful at early stages of learning is too ambitious for older students.

Total Physical Response (TPR)-1977- is a method developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California, to aid learning foreign languages. The method relies on the assumption that when learning a second or additional language, that language is internalized through a process of codebreaking similar to first language development and that the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production. Students respond to commands that require physical movement. TPR is an ESL/EAL behaviorist minded teacher's main tool.

The method was popularized by Blaine Ray, who saw how well interactive movements and stories helped his students learn. Since then, he has created the foundation of a method called Total Physical Response Storytelling (TPRS), which adds fun stories to Asher's methods.

Add to this Humanistic approach in this period (1970-1980) language learning research and first and second languages acquisition/learning research is emphasized. All this derives into the Natural approach (Krashen & Terrell 1983) & the previous  Krashen´s Linguistic Model (1982) emerge recovering some ideas from the old Direct & Natural methods.

As a reaction to the “Method Age” during the end of the 70s and the emerge of Applied Linguistics and a new psichological paradigm lead to an “anti-methods” view of language teaching methodology. Long (1989) stated that “methods don’t matter because they don’t exist”; Nunan (1991) supported criticisms of the profession and its preoccupation with methods; Brown (1994a) opined that “The era of methods is over”; and Woodward (1996) noted that the profession is now in a period of “post-method thinking.”

Several alternatives were offered to the view that methods were at the heart of methodology: Communicative approaches versus the old fashioned teacher centred instruction was the most popular one to be acclaimed and interpreted .

From Grammar-translation methods to current communicative approaches

Add to this statement -the most recent trends in the teaching of the foreign languages -and the idea behind LOGSE –general aims for the foreign languages curriculum: “developing the students communicative competence” – we can verify that there is one common element; this consists in understanding language as a means of communication. For this reason the processes of learning a 2^nd language are associated with interactive practice exercises, which promote social communication. The communicative approach is based on the observation of this natural phenomenon of language:

“communication is an exchange between people, of knowledge, of information, of ideas, of opinions, of feelings…For genuine communication to take place, what it is being communicated must be something new to the recipient: there is no sense in him being able to tell in advance what is going to happen. Communication is full of surprises. It is the element of unexpectedness and unpredictability which makes communication what it is, and for which it is so hard to prepare the student by conventional teaching methods” (Revell 1979)

N.Chomsky`s contributions to linguistic theory reflect the shift from a Behaviourist to a Cognitive influence in language learning. In his book Aspects of the Theory of syntax emphasized the distinction between competence and performance. He defined competence as a speaker’s intuitive knowledge of the rules of language and performance as the actual message produced by applying those rules. On the other hand Gumperz y Hymes` The Ethnography on Communication (1964) and D.Hymes`article “on communicative competence” (1972) introduces this two terms for the first time into linguistics. He defines this notion not only in terms of grammatical competence, but also in terms of the knowledge of the appropriateness of the message to the context of communication.

From 1972 on with the development of Applied Linguistics there’s not only researching on how to teach better but more important how students learn better and what they do need to learn (psycholinguistic + sociolinguistics). There is a breakaway from method concept. Applied Linguisitcs and clear distinctions between Approach; Method and Technique. A definition: concept of approach; method and technique E. Anthony (1963) + Richard & Rodgers (1986)

Approach: language and language learning are spicified. THEORY OF LANGUAGE

Method:  Theory is put into practice. AN OVERALL DESIGN / PLAN

Technique:  Strategies/ practices that which TAKE PLACE IN THE .

Add to these new trends we need to remember the concern that most international organizations and specially the European Community show for foreign lanfuages in what it is becoming a more and more global world. Within this sociological context the E.U during the 70s and 80s develop a programme called “Alive languages”, where researchers from different academical fields – politics; linguistics, pedagogy, psychology, sociology...- try to develop new methods and approaches for the learning of a Foreign Language. The research was basically based on european students`nedds for communication and on a previous study produced by the British linguistic D.A. Wilkins. Wilkins describes opposite to the traditional layout of grammar and vocabulary for a language, he tries to analyse the communicative meanings that a student needs to develop to be able to use a language competently. Wilkins describes two types of meanings: notion categories ( time, quantity, place... frequency...) and functional categories ( ordering, offerrings, expressing likes & dislikes... etc). Later on this research was named NOTIONAL SYLLABUSES (1976) and it should be a starting point for the future Communicative Approach.

The Council of Europe takes Wilkins`work and  adapt it – including grammatical forms in use for developing functions-for a basic programme of communicative language – Threshold level (Ek and Alexander 1975)- This programme is adapted to Spanish Educative System – Nivel Umbral ,1979- . Nivel Umbral stablishes  a sequence of different linguistic functions to reach some specific communicative aims.

Unfortunately this programme do not stablish methodological principles, activities or evaluation matters and therefore we will have to wait to  the works of Widdowson, Candlin, Brumfit and Johnson to achieve the so-called Communicative Approach in Practice

The Notional Functional Syllabus

A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and “functions.” In this model, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate, and a “function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion” or context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts. Notio-functional syllabuses derive in a general concept defined as communicative approach:Communicative approach:

The Communicative Approach may be consider the pedagogical programme where researchers have organised the different grammatical elements into notions + functions (Bestard Monroig & Perez Martin 1992).

Theoretical principles of the communicative approach:

• Language is a system for the expression of meaning
• The primary function of language is for interaction and communication
• The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses
• The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse
• Activities that involve real communication promote learning
• Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning
• Language that it is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

The main method derived from the communicative approach is the CLT

(communicative language teaching method).

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a practice to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language.Historically, CLT can be seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (the ALM) and as an extension or development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus.

As an extension of the notional-functional syllabus, CLT also places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions. Unlike the ALM, its primary focus is on helping learners create meaning rather than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation. This means that successfully learning a foreign language is assessed in terms of how well learners have developed their communicative competence, which can loosely be defined as their ability to apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguistic aspects of a language with adequate proficiency to communicate.

CLT is usually characterized as a broad practice for teaching. As such, it is most often defined as a list of general principles or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:

1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself.
4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.

Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their communicate competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction. Thus, this communicative practice develops different methods of work; Methods from the “age methods” were recovered and re.interpreted under this new communicative paradigm; as an example we can say how audio-lingual drills were contextualized; or the direct method was made more suitable and meaningful for Teaching in a Primary stage and recently  adapted in bilingual programmes – for instance in Andalucia-; natural method was interpreted as an approach and therefore ages for facing the learning of a foreign language was  turn into 6-7 years old; TPR activities were reinterpreted in mock-authentic communicative events and help for developing oral understanding in teaching to young learners and so on with all the different methods previously mentioned.  Iin the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation focused activities.

Communicative activities:

Pre-communicative activities:

• Audio-lingual drills (contextualized): students modify one item from the pattern
• Structural practice in context
• Pictures & realia provide the cues to modify the pattern Open dialogue with personal information
• Role cards dialogue

Functional communication activities:

• Sharing information: pair work; group work
• Discovering pairs/ sequences/locations/missing information/ secrets
• Problem-solving activities: reconstructing story-sequences; pooling information to solve a problem
• Discussions + taking decisions, simulations, drama, etc

Other proposals derived from Communicative Approach:

Community language learning: Learner-centred: Students in the center of the process of teachin-learning is emphasized

Based on tasks: The achievement of different tasks in communicative contexts is emphszed

Based on projects: The procedure on the top of the teaching-learning process

Acquisition versus learning: Age is important and th learning of a foreign language should follow a natural route –similar to the “learning” of the L1

Communicative CALL Versus CALL. Proponents of communicative CALL rejected behaviorist approaches at both the theoretical and pedagogical level. They stressed that CALL should focus more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves. Grammar should be taught implicitly and students should be encouraged to generate original utterances instead of manipulating prefabricated forms (Jones & Fortescue, 1987; Philips, 1987). This form of computer-based instruction corresponded to cognitive theories which recognized that learning was a creative process of discovery, expression, and development. The mainframe was replaced by personal computers that allowed greater possibilities for individual work. Popular CALL software in this era included text reconstruction programmers and simulations.

All of them do have in common the language as a sytem of communication and the need for students to acquire Communicative Competence; in other words to acquire the knowledge and the ability to use the second language in different contexts – what to say, how to say and when to say something- Canale & Swaim (1980) develops this Communicative Competence concept and distinguishes:

Linguistic subcompetence: phonology, morphology, syntax & semantic

Discoursive Subcompetence: Discourse –coherence and cohesion-

Sociolinguistic subcomptence: adequate communication depending on the role adopted and the context

Strategic subcompetence: negotiation of meaning and startegies involve to achieve communication sucessfully.

Sociocultural subcompetence: culture.

The Communicative Competence concept is developed through LOGSE for Primary , Secondary and Bachillerato and underline the need to adopt a Communicative Approach as a basic methodological principle to acquire and learn English as a second language in our country

The acquisition of a Second language within a communicative Approach implies a method that develops the four skills – listening; speakin; reading & writing- as a global and unified system. Most of well-recognised authors –Nunan, Widdowson, etc... –debate about the integration and the need of the four skills.

Finally we need to mention two important key issues within the Communicative Approach the role that Grammar adopts and the treatment of errors.

Related to Grammar we need to briefly and simply distinguish; explicit and implicit methods of teaching grammar – each of them it should be in use taking into account age and level of students, using as ageneral principle the system from implicit to explicit.

Regarded the treatment of errors. We need to distinguish between errors and mistakes and consider errors as a prove of students`linguistic development and not something per se wron.

What's Now, What's Next?: Teaching in XXIst century

The future is always uncertain, and this is no less true in anticipating methodological directions in second language teaching than in any other field. Some current predictions assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends; others appear a bit more science-fiction-like in their vision. These methodological candidates are given identifying labels in a somewhat a bit reminiscent of yesteryear's method labels.

1.      Method Synergistics/Integral method
Crossbreeding elements from various methods into a common program of instruction seems an appropriate way to find those practices which best support effective learning. Methods and approaches have usually been proposed as idiosyncratic and unique, yet it appears reasonable to combine practices from different approaches where the philosophical foundations are similar. One might call such an approach "Disciplined Eclecticism."

2.      Curriculum Developmentalism
Language teaching has not profited much from more general views of educational design. The curriculum perspective comes from general education and views successful instruction as an interweaving of Knowledge, Instructional, Learner, and Administrative considerations. From this perspective, methodology is viewed as only one of several instructional considerations that are necessarily thought out and realized in conjunction with all other curricular considerations.

Integrative CALL

3. The last stage of computer-assisted Language Learning is integrative CALL. Communicative CALL was criticized for using the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and using the computer made 'a greater contribution to marginal rather than central elements' of language learning (Kenning & Kenning, 1990: 90). Teachers have moved away from a cognitive view of communicative language teaching to a socio-cognitive view that emphasizes real language use in a meaningful, authentic context. Integrative CALL seeks both to integrate the various skills of language learning (listening, speaking, writing, and reading) and to integrate technology more fully into language teaching (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). To this end the multimedia-networked computer provides a range of informational, communicative, and publishing tools that are potentially available to every student
4. Content-Basics
   Content-based instruction assumes that language learning is a by-product of focus on meaning--on acquiring some specific topical content--and that content topics to support language learning should be chosen to best match learner needs and interests and to promote optimal development of second language competence.
5. Multintelligencia
   The notion here is adapted from the Multiple Intelligences view of human talents proposed by Howard Gardner (1983). This model is one of a variety of learning style models that have been proposed in general education with follow-up inquiry by language educators. The chart below shows Gardner's proposed eight native intelligences and indicates classroom language-rich task types that play to each of these particular intelligences.

INTELLIGENCE TYPES AND APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Intellegence Type	Educational Activities
Linguistic	lectures, worksheets, word games, journals, debates
Logical	puzzles, estimations, problem solving
Spatial	charts, diagrams, graphic organizers, drawing, films
Bodily	hands-on, mime, craft, demonstrations
Musical	singing, poetry, Jazz Chants, mood music
Interpersonal	group work, peer tutoring, class projects
Intrapersonal	reflection, interest centers, personal values tasks
Naturalist	field trips, show and tell, plant and animal projects
Figure 3. (Adapted from Christison, 1998)

The challenge here is to identify these intelligences in individual learners and then to determine appropriate and realistic instructional tasks in response.

5        Total Functional Response
Communicative Language Teaching was founded (and floundered) on earlier notional/functional proposals for the description of languages. Refinement of functional models will lead to increased attention to genre and text types in both first and second language instruction.

6        Strategopedia
"Learning to Learn" is the key theme in an instructional focus on language learning strategies. Such strategies include, at the most basic level, memory tricks, and at higher levels, cognitive and metacognitive strategies for learning, thinking, planning, and self-monitoring. Research findings suggest that strategies can indeed be taught to language learners, that learners will apply these strategies in language learning tasks, and that such application does produce significant gains in language learning.

7        Lexical Phraseology
The lexical phraseology view holds that only "a minority of spoken clauses are entirely novel creations" and that "memorized clauses and clause-sequences form a high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech heard in every day conversation." One estimate is that "the number of memorized complete clauses and sentences known to the mature English speaker probably amounts, at least, to several hundreds of thousands" (Pawley & Syder, 1983). Understanding of the use of lexical phrases has been immensely aided by large-scale computer studies of language corpora, which have provided hard data to support the speculative inquiries into lexical phraseology of second language acquisition researchers. For language teachers, the results of such inquiries have led to conclusions that language teaching should center on these memorized lexical patterns and the ways they can be pieced together, along with the ways they vary and the situations in which they occur.

8        Full-Frontal Communicativity
We know that the linguistic part of human communication represents only a small fraction of total meaning. At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that, "We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible." Despite these cautions, language teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic component of human communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic aspects of communication, including rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and hesitation phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in non-verbal messaging.

Conclusions

Communicative approach refers to a diverse set of general principles that can be interpreted in many different ways to support a wide variety of different classroom procedures. Several contemporary teaching approaches such as Task- based approach; content-based approach and learner-centred approach can all claim to be applications of these principles and hence Communicative Approaches and these extensions continue as mainstreams approaches today. These corresponding ones and their methods and techniques do NOT circle around the teacher but students; As a conclusion; methodology; activities; tasks; topics; materials; etc are students centred. Students are responsible of their own learning. They manage their knowledge (ejp. role plays; pair work; free writing; dramatization) therefore developing their communicative competence

Our last words in this essay have all been concerned with the development of a “communicative approach” to the teaching of languages. Nonetheless, it should be clear that there is no direct transfer from the theoretical issues raised to teaching methodology. Methodology is of course an attempt to solve specific practical problems, and insofar as it relates to the complexities of real people and real institutions it must embody attitudes drawn from a number of different theoretical disciplines.

To say the last word; There is no ideal method, neither approach, nor book but the interaction of many different parts which work as a puzzle item to complete the whole picture of teaching a Foreign language as it is conceived in LOGSE.

 

 

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