Author: Graham Davies
© Professor Graham Davies
Abstract
An introduction to Computer Assisted Language
Learning, including a brief history and mention of more recent trends (CD-ROMS,
DVDs, the Web) and professional associations dedicated to CALL.
Table of contents
- A definition of CALL
- A brief history of CALL
- Traditional CALL
- Explorative CALL
- Multimedia CALL
- Web-based CALL
- CALL authoring programs
- Professional associations for CALL
- Suppliers of CALL materials
- Bibliography
- Related links
A definition of CALL
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is
often perceived, somewhat narrowly, as an approach to language teaching and
learning in which the computer is used as an aid to the presentation,
reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial
interactive element. Levy (1997:1) defines CALL more succinctly and more
broadly as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in
language teaching and learning".
Levy's definition is in line with the view held
by the majority of modern CALL practitioners. For a comprehensive overview of
CALL see ICT4LT Module 1.4, Introduction to Computer Assisted Language Learning
(CALL): http://www.ict4lt.org/.
A brief history of CALL
CALL's origins can be traced back to the 1960s.
Up until the late 1970s CALL projects were confined mainly to universities,
where computer programs were developed on large mainframe computers. The PLATO
project, initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960, is an important landmark
in the early development of CALL (Marty 1981). In the late 1970s, the arrival
of the personal computer (PC) brought computing within the range of a wider
audience, resulting in a boom in the development of CALL programs and a flurry
of publications. Early CALL favoured an approach that drew heavily on practices
associated with programmed instruction. This was reflected in the term Computer
Assisted Language Instruction (CALI), which originated in the USA and was in
common use until the early 1980s, when CALL became the dominant term. There was
initially a lack of imagination and skill on the part of programmers, a
situation that was rectified to a considerable extent by the publication of an
influential seminal work by Higgins & Johns (1984), which contained
numerous examples of alternative approaches to CALL. Throughout the 1980s CALL
widened its scope, embracing the communicative approach and a range of new
technologies. CALL has now established itself as an important area of research
in higher education: see the joint EUROCALL/CALICO/IALLT
Research Policy Statement:
http://www.eurocall-languages.org /research/research_policy.htm. See also the History
of CALL website: http://www.history-of-call.org/.
Traditional CALL
Traditional CALL programs presented a stimulus
to which the learner had to provide a response. In early CALL programs the
stimulus was in the form of text presented on screen, and the only way in which
the learner could respond was by entering an answer at the keyboard. Some
programs were very imaginative in the way text was presented, making use of
colour to highlight grammatical features (e.g. gender in French and case
endings in German) and movement to illustrate points of syntax (e.g. position
of adjectives in French and subordinate clause word order in German). Discrete
error analysis and feedback were a common feature of traditional CALL, and the
more sophisticated programs would attempt to analyse the learner's response,
pinpoint errors, and branch to help and remedial activities.
A typical example of this approach is the CLEF
package for learners of French, which was developed in the late 1970s and early
1980s by a consortium of Canadian universities. A Windows version of CLEF has
recently been released: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/clef.htm Error
analysis in CALL is, however, a matter of controversy. Practitioners who come into
CALL via the disciplines of computational linguistics, e.g. Natural Language
Processing (NLP) and Human Language Technologies (HLT), tend to be more
optimistic about the potential of error analysis by computer than those who
come into CALL via language teaching: see ICT4LT Module 3.5, Human Language
Technologies: http://www.ict4lt.org/. The approach adopted by the authors of
CLEF was to anticipate common errors and build in appropriate feedback. An
alternative approach is the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques to
parse the learner's response - so-called "intelligent CALL" (ICALL) -
but there is a gulf between those who favour the use of AI to develop CALL
programs (Matthews 1994) and, at the other extreme, those who perceive this
approach as a threat to humanity (Last 1989:153).
Explorative CALL
More recent approaches to CALL have favoured a
learner-centred, explorative approach rather than a teacher-centred,
drill-based approach to CALL. The explorative approach is characterised by the
use of concordance programs in the languages classroom - an approach described
as Data-Driven Learning (DLL) by Tim Johns (Johns & King 1991). There are a
number of concordance programs on the market, e.g. MonoConc, Concordance,
Wordsmith and SCP - all of which are described in ICT4LT Module 2.4, Using
concordance programs in the modern foreign languages classroom:
http://www.ict4lt.org/. See also Tribble & Jones (1990).
The explorative approach is widely used today,
including the use of Web concordancers and other Web-based CALL activities.
Multimedia CALL
Early personal computers were incapable of
presenting authentic recordings of the human voice and easily recognizable
images, but this limitation was overcome by combining a personal computer and a
12-inch videodisc player, which made it possible to combine sound, photographic-quality
still images and video recordings in imaginative presentations - in essence the
earliest manifestation of multimedia CALL. The result was the development of
interactive videodiscs for language learners such as Montevidisco (Schneider
& Bennion 1984), Expodisc (Davies 1991), and A la rencontre de Philippe
(Fuerstenberg 1993), all of which were designed as simulations in which the
learner played a key role.
The techniques learned in the 1980s by the
developers of interactive videodiscs were adapted for the multimedia personal
computers (MPCs), which incorporated CD-ROM drives and were in widespread use
by the early 1990s. The MPC is now the standard form of personal computer.
CD-ROMs were used in the 1980s initially to store large quantities of text and
later to store sound, still images and video. By the mid-1990s a wide range of
multimedia CD-ROMs for language learners was available, including imaginative
simulations such as the Who is Oscar Lake? series: http://www.languagepub.com/.
The quality of video recordings offered by CD-ROM technology, however, was slow
to catch up with that offered by the earlier interactive videodiscs. The
Digital Video Disc (DVD) offers much higher quality video recordings, e.g. the
Eurotalk Advanced Level DVD-ROM series: http://www.eurotalk.co.uk/. A feature
of many multimedia CALL programs is the role-play activity, in which the
learner can record his/her own voice and play it back as part of a continuous
dialogue with a native speaker. Other multimedia programs make use of Automatic
Speech Recognition (ASR) software to diagnose learners' errors, e.g. Tell Me
More Pro by Auralog: http://www.auralog.com/english.html. Most CALL programs
under development today fall into the category of multimedia CALL. See ICT4LT Module
2.2, Introduction to multimedia CALL: http://www.ict4lt.org/.
Web-based CALL
In 1992 the World Wide Web was launched,
reaching the general public in 1993. The Web offers enormous potential in
language learning and teaching, but it has some way to go before it catches up
with the interactivity and speed of access offered by CD-ROMs or DVDs, especially
when accessing sound and video files. For this reason, Felix (2001:190) advises
adopting hybrid approaches to CALL, integrating CD-ROMs and the Web and running
audio conferencing and video conferencing in conjunction with Web activities. The
Web Enhanced Language Learning (WELL) project, which has been funded under the
FDTL programme of the HEFCE, aims to promote wider awareness and more effective
use of the Web for teaching modern languages across higher education in the UK.
The WELL website provides access to high-quality Web resources in a number of
different languages, selected and described by subject experts, plus
information and examples on how to use them for teaching and learning: http://www.well.ac.uk/. See also the
following ICT4LT modules: http://www.ict4lt.org/
1.5 Introduction to the Internet
2.3 Exploiting World Wide Web
resources online and offline
3.2 Creating a World Wide Web site
CALL authoring programs
CALL authoring programs offer a do-it-yourself
approach to CALL. They were originally developed to enable programmers to
simplify the entry of data provided by language teachers.
Modern CALL authoring programs are designed to
be used by language teachers who have no knowledge of computer programming. Typical
examples are authoring packages that automatically generate a set of pre-set
activities for the learner, e.g. Camsoft's Fun with Texts (Camsoft) and The
Authoring Suite (Wida Software). Generic packages such as Macromedia's Director
(http://www.macromedia.com/) are more sophisticated and enable the user to
create a full-blown course, but they are probably too complex for most language
teachers and are best suited to the template approach to authoring, as
described in ICT4LT Module 3.2, CALL software design and implementation:
http://www.ict4lt.org/ Web authoring packages are also available, e.g. Hot
Potatoes software: http://web.uvic.ca/hrd/halfbaked. See ICT4LT Module 2.5, Introduction
to CALL authoring programs. See also Bickerton (1999) and Bickerton, Stenton
& Temmermann (2001).
Professional associations for
CALL
An increasing number of professional
associations devoted to CALL are emerging worldwide. The older associations are
grouped together under WorldCALL, which is in the process of establishing
itself as an umbrella association of associations. WorldCALL held its first conference
at the University of Melbourne in 1998, and the second WorldCALL conference will
take place in Banff, Canada, 2003: http://www.worldcall.org/. The current
professional associations represented in WorldCALL are:
EUROCALL: The leading European professional
association for CALL. The ReCALL journal is published by Cambridge University
Press on behalf of EUROCALL: http://www.eurocall-languages.org
CERCLES: The European Confederation of
Language Centres in Higher Education. http://www.cercles.org/. CERCLES embraces
a similar constituency to IALLT in North America.
CALICO: The leading North American
professional association for CALL. Publishes the CALICO Journal:
http://www.calico.org/
IALLT: International Association for
Language Learning Technology, based in North America:
http://www.iallt.org/. IALLT publishes the
IALLT Journal of Language Learning Technologies and embraces a similar
constituency to CERCLES in Europe.
CCALL/ACELAO: Currently in the process of
establishing itself as a formal professional association in Canada. No website
is available at present.
LLA: The Language Laboratory Association
of Japan, also known as LET, which now embraces a wider range of language
learning technologies:. http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/lla
ATELL: The Australian Association for
Technology Enhanced Language Learning consortium:
http://www.arts.uq.edu.au/ATELL. ATELL used to
publish On-CALL, which has now merged with CALL-EJ (Japan).
Suppliers of CALL materials
There are two general suppliers of CALL
software in the UK:
Camsoft: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/
Wida Software: http://www.wida.co.uk/
There is a comprehensive database that list the
range of software titles, producers and suppliers:
BECTA Educational Software Database:
http://besd.becta.org.uk/
In addition to the journals published by
professional associations for CALL, the following are also available:
Bibliography
<="">Bickerton, D. (1999). Authoring
and the Academic Linguist: the Challenge of MMCALL. In
K. Cameron (ed.) CALL: Media, Design and Applications,
59-79. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.
<="">
<="">Bickerton, D., Stenton, T.
& Temmermann, M. (2001). Criteria for the Evaluation of
Authoring Tools in Language Education. In A.
Chambers & G. Davies (eds), ICT and Language
Learning: a European Perspective, 53-66. Lisse:
Swets & Zeitlinger.
<="">
<="">Davies, G.D. (1991).
Expodisc - an Interactive Videodisc Package for Learners of
Spanish. In H. Savolainen & J. Telenius
(eds), EUROCALL 91: Proceedings, 133-39. Helsinki:
Helsinki School of Economics. Available at:
http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/expodisc.htm
<="">Felix, U. (2001). Beyond
Babel: Language Learning Online. Melbourne: Language
Australia. Reviewed at
http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/FelixReview.htm
<="">Fuerstenberg, G. (1993). A
la rencontre de Philippe: Videodisc, Software, Teacher's
Manual and Student Activities Workbook. Yale
University Press. See also http://web.mit.edu/fll/
www/projects/Philippe.html
<="">Higgins, J. & Johns,
T. (1984). Computers in Language Learning. London: Collins.
<="">
<="">Johns, T. & King, P.
(eds) (1991). Classroom Concordancing. Special Issue of ELR
Journal 4, University of Birmingham: Centre for
English Language Studies.
<="">
<="">Last, R.W. (1989).
Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Language Learning. Chichester:
Ellis Horwood.
<="">
<="">Levy, M. (1997). CALL:
Context and Conceptualisation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
<="">
<="">Marty, F. (1981).
Reflections on the Use of Computers in Second Language Acquisition.
System 9/2:85-98.
<="">
<="">Matthews, C. (1994).
Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning as Cognitive
Science: The choice of Syntactic Frameworks for
Language Tutoring. Journal of Artificial
Intelligence in Education 5, 4:533-56.
<="">
<="">Schneider, E.W. &
Bennion, J.L. (1984). Veni, Vidi, Vici, via Videodisc: A Simulator for
Instructional Courseware. In D.H Wyatt (ed.) Computer
Assisted Language Instruction 41-6.
Oxford: Pergamon.
<="">
<="">Tribble, C. & Jones,
G. (1990). Concordances in the Classroom. Harlow: Longman.
<="">
Related links
Apprentissage des langues et systmes
d'information et de communication (ALSIC)
http://alsic.u-strasbg.fr/
CALL-EJ Online
http://www.lerc.ritsumei.ac.jp/callej/index.html
CALL-EJ (Japan) merged with On-CALL (Australia)
and became CALL-EJ Online in May 1999.
CALL Journal
http://www.swets.nl
Lisse, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger
Language Learning Technology journal
http://llt.msu.edu/
C&IT Centre CALL bibliography
http://www.eurocall-languages.org/resources/reading.htm
This is a comprehensive bibliography of CALL
publications, including other bibliographies on the
Web.
The C&IT Centre is part of the LTSN Subject
Centre for Languages, Linguistics and Area
Studies
http://www.llas.ac.uk/
Graham Davies's Favourite Websites.
http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/websites.htm
ICT4LT Resource Centre bibliography
http://www.ict4lt.org/
The ICT4LT Resource Centre includes a
comprehensive bibliography and other Web links
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